Discussion Question: (a) Some argue young adulthood is the most challenging developmental stage of adulthood. Critique or defend this argument. (b) How does each stage have its own challenges and opportunities? (c) Which stage do you think you will enjoy the most, and why?
I will upload chapter 1 and 12 to read through form of text to read below.
chapter 1 summary
Developmental psychology includes the study of change and stability over time during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. The study of adult development covers the time from emerging adulthood to the end of life and is based on empirical research.
This text covers individual differences among people and also the commonalities they share. It looks at stability and change, continuity and stages, typical development and atypical development, and the external and internal changes that occur over the years of adulthood.
The word age has many more meanings than how many years one has been alive (chronological age). In various usages it also designates estimates of a persons physical condition compared to others (biological age), the abilities one displays in dealing effectively with the environment (psychological age), and the roles one has taken on (social age). Functional age is a combination of biological, psychological, and social ages.
1.2 Sources of Change
Objective: Explain the major sources of development
Sources of change in adulthood are classified into three types. Normative age-graded influences are linked to age and happen to most people as they grow older. They come from both biological and environmental causes and also from interactions between genes and the environment.
Normative history-graded influences are environmental factors that affect people within a group. These changes include cultural conditions and cohort experiences. One of the best-studied cohorts is the group of people who lived through the Great Depression.
Nonnormative life events are unique to the individual and cause developmental changes that are not shared by most people.
Genes and the environment also contribute to change. They usually interact, and one mechanism for this interaction is epigenetic inheritance, in which genes are modified through DNA methylation.
1.3 Guiding Perspectives
Objective: Differentiate between the perspectives of psychological and bioecological models
This text will approach the topic of adult development using the tenets of lifespan developmental psychology, a set of ideas introduced by Baltes in 1980 that encouraged psychologists to study development at many ages and to view development in a broader scope than they had before.
A second approach this text will take is based on the ecological systems view introduced by Bronfenbrenner in 1979. This set of ideas inspired psychologists to consider the whole person, not just the isolated behavior of a participant in a laboratory experiment.
1.4 Developmental Research
Objective: Evaluate developmental research methods
The first step in conducting developmental research is to select a research method. There are three possibilities: (1) cross-sectional studies gather data on a group of people representing different age groups, (2) longitudinal studies follow the same people over a longer period of time, gathering data at several points along the way, and (3) sequential studies combine the preceding methods by conducting two longitudinal studies during different time periods, thereby making it possible to do both longitudinal and cross-sectional comparisons. There are pros and cons to each method.
After a method is chosen, a researcher needs to choose an appropriate measure. Some of the most common ones in developmental research are personal interviews, survey questionnaires, and standardized tests.
The next step in developmental research is selecting analyses. Most research uses either comparison of means, which involves computing the means of the measurement scores for each group and testing them statistically to see if they are significantly different, or correlational analysis, in which the researcher compares scores on several measurements for the participants to see if there is a relationship between the characteristics being measured. Correlations are used to show both change and stability. They are also used to demonstrate heritability by comparing scores of monozygotic twin pairs with scores of dizygotic twin pairs. The meta-analysis combines data from a number of previously published studies that focus on the same research question and reanalyzes it as a larger, more powerful study.
The final step in developmental research involves stating conclusions, and this depends on whether the research design was experimental or not. If the design was experimental, it is possible to conclude that the results of the study were caused by the factor of interest. Experimental designs include true experiments and quasi-experiments, and they differ in the amount of control the experimenter has over the conditions of the study and the outside factors that might also cause similar results. Ture experimental designs are not often used in developmental research. Research designs that are not experimental provide valuable knowledge about development even though researchers cannot conclude that their factor of interest caused the results. These designs include descriptive research and qualitative research.
Key Terms:
Introduction to Adult Development
chapter 12 summaryTo understand adult development, it is important to divide it into topics, as is done in the earlier chapters of this book. But it is also important to put it back together again and view people as wholes.
Emerging adulthood is the time of peak physical and cognitive abilities. This is a newly identified stage of adulthood defined by identity exploration, positive instability, focusing on the self, feeling in-between, and imagining possibilities.
Young adulthood is the time of continued high levels of physical and cognitive abilities. Some decline begins as early as age 30, but it is not noticeable except for top-performing athletes. This period is the time of peak role transitions, relationship formation, and tribalization (a sense of belonging to a group).
Middle adulthood is the time in which the biological clock begins to tick noticeably. The first signs of physical aging appear and the first signs of cognitive decline, though it is slight. Reproductive ability declines for both men and women, and then ends for women. The social clock becomes less loud. There is more flexibility in family roles and careers. There is time to question the rules and actions of the tribe and to become more of an individual.
Although middle adulthood is known as a time of crisis, this myth does not stand up to empirical research.
The hallmark of older adulthood is retirement. There is little biological difference between this group and those in middle adulthood, but the social differences can be significant if retirement is considered. The end of ones regular work life can have major financial and social effects, although there is no evidence that retirement has an effect on physical or mental health. Most older adults spend this stage adapting to a new lifestyle and finding new roles to fill now that the role of worker is finished.
Late adulthood is the fastest-growing age group in the United States and in all developed countries. As a result, we know more about this age than ever before. The slow decline in physical and cognitive abilities that began back in early adulthood speeds up in late adulthood. This is accompanied by a decrease in social activities and social networks. However, most people this age enjoy fewer but closer relationships. The hypothesis that those who disengage from the world are mentally healthier has not held up to close examination.
Late adulthood is a time for reviewing ones life and perhaps coming to grips with ones eventual death. Some adults in this time of life write memoirs or mend fences with former friends and family members.
12.2 Variations in Successful Development
Objective: Evaluate measures of life success
Although this book emphasizes the typical pathways through adulthood, there are many variations that can lead to success and well-being.
Quality of life for adulthood in the United States depends highly on socioeconomic status and health. These two factors explain many of the more distal predictors, such as race and gender. Another factor is age, with older adults reporting greater quality of life than middle-aged or young adults. Those who are happily married, participate in physical and social activities, feel they have control over their lives, and base their comparisons on others their age also report higher quality of life.
12.3 A Model of Adult Growth and Development
Objective: Analyze adulthood according to models of growth and development
Despite the variability in adult development, most of us have similarities in our journeys of adulthood, and these journeys are strongly influenced by our education, family background, intelligence, and personality.
The developmental pathways we travel along are made up of alternating stable times and times of disequilibrium. The periods of disequilibrium can result in positive change, negative change, or neutral outcomes.
12.4 Successful Aging
Objective: Determine the elements of successful aging
Most adults pass through adulthood with reasonable happiness and satisfaction, picking up some wisdom along the way and passing it along to those who come behind them.
Click or tap through each flashcard for this chapters key terms and their corresponding definitions.
